Religious Dissent, Discord, Settlement and Religious Essay Example for Free

Religious Dissent, Discord, Settlement and Religious Essay This section of the paper introduces the topic and the thesis. In support of the formation of the thesis, the introduction discusses a brief history of the Tudor reign, and how prior monarchies have created religious divisions within the English society. The introduction enumerates the main concerns surrounding the topics of religious dissent, discord, settlement and religious atmosphere that took place before and during the reign of Elizabeth I. The introduction also establishes the argument as to whether Elizabeth I’s solution to the religious conflict, the creation of a united church, was an important and feasible move considering the politics surrounding her reign and the pressing influence of Rome on the religious affairs of many countries, particularly in Europe. Although this would eventually lead to the formation of the Church of England and the English Reformation, it is important to examine the historical impact of Elizabeth I’s decision in terms of implementing a defined and united English church. II. The Religious Atmosphere Prior to Elizabeth II Overview Elizabeth I’s impact on the religious life in England can be attributed to the problems which she inherited; this section discusses these factors, briefly touching on the religious atmosphere during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VII and Mary I. As religion played an important role in England at that time, especially with the influence of the Roman Catholics pertaining to England’s foreign relations with Rome and other parts of Europe, the religious atmosphere prior to Elizabeth I’s reign can be observed to represent deep divisions as some groups wanted to have a different interpretation and practice of the sacred Christian texts and rituals, whereas some wanted to follow the Roman Catholic way. Although this may seem like a small problem, religion’s role in the societies of those times was critical. At that time, the Church had a strong influence on the State, and this was something upheld by previous monarchs before Elizabeth I took the throne. Certain wars sprung out because of religious conflict, and it became a pressing problem especially as before Elizabeth I had to address the re-installation of Catholicism in England under Mary I’s period. II. a Religious Atmosphere Under Henry VIII II. b Religious Atmosphere Under Mary I III. Elizabethan Reign: Dissent, Discord and Religious Settlement and Atmosphere Overview This section provides a more detailed historical approach in Elizabeth I’s religious settlement. This takes from Elizabeth I’s decision to re-establish the Church of England and break ties with Rome. This section also touches on the different acts or laws implemented at that time which would serve as steps in the implementation of the Church of England and address religious divisions in the society. This section also provides a concise but substantive background on Elizabeth I’s installation as Queen in supplement to her religious settlement. This is an important aspect of the paper as Elizabeth I’s background provides the motivation and the decision of the queen, especially in terms of her religious settlement. IV. Elizabethan England: Religion and Renaissance This section touches on the English society during the Elizabethan era. This provides a background of the religious atmosphere in the country and how, during Elizabeth I’s reign, the English society started to change. This also gives a background on how and why Elizabeth I’s period has been considered as the Golden Age of English history in which this era became a point of significant accomplishments of literature and art, in addition to the prevalence of the Protestant Reformation mindset of the people. What is interesting is that although Elizabeth I would stabilise Protestantism in England, and she would be recognised for it, this did not prevent the emergence of the English Renaissance where the Elizabethan society would adopt a more open mind towards the arts and the sciences. V. Conclusion This paper concludes with an analysis of Elizabeth I’s religious settlement and how this would serve as an important seed to the formation of the English society especially in the religious and political context. This section also summarises the aspects of religious dissent and discord, especially as to whether Elizabeth I successfully addressed the deep religious divisions in the English society; this is an important point of discussion as her religious settlement was not just aimed to address religious conflict within the country but also as a means for her to install her legitimacy and rule an era of renaissance instead of religiosity.

Shooting an Elephant Essay -- Literary Analysis, Orwell

In the essay, Shooting an Elephant, George Orwell illustrates his experiences as a British police officer in Lower Burma, and reflects it to the nature of imperialism. Since â€Å"anti-European feeling was very bitter† due to the British Empire’s dictatorship in Burma, Orwell is being treated disrespectfully by the Burmese (12). This allows him to hate his job and the British Empire. However, the incident of shooting of an elephant gives him a â€Å"better glimpse †¦ of the real nature of imperialism – the real motives for which despotic government act† (13). Through his life experiences as a British man, Orwell efficiently demonstrates the negative effects of imperialism on individuals and society. With the usage of effective diction in his essay, Orwell excellently conveys his emotions and message to his readers. He often uses the word â€Å"natives† for the Burmese: â€Å"Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd† (15). By doing so, he shows his emotions and respect towards the Burmese because calling them â€Å"natives† suggests that he agrees on the fact that they are the true owner of Burma and not the British Empire. Also, by frequently using the word â€Å"natives†, Orwell reminds his readers the existence of imperialism in Burma so that the readers do not simply hang on to the elephant but also get the message incorporated in the essay. The body of the elephant is compared to machinery as Orwell thinks that killing an elephant â€Å"is comparable to destroying a huge and costly piece of machinery† (15). This comparison makes the readers realize that the British Empire is also like a huge pie ce of machinery, so the death of it would be a serious matter to both oppressor and people being oppressed. When Orwell wa... ...Shooting an Elephant. According to what Orwell is trying to impose, his target audience seems to be youth, adults, and politicians as imperialism is more reflected off of people under these categories. As a police officer, Orwell teaches his readers that imperialism is the worst way to govern a country as it is harmful to an individual’s way of thinking and value of morality in society. He proved that in an imperialism based system, no one is actually dominant over one another as they all end up being slaves of each other. This results in demolished and demoralized society. Orwell achieves his goal outstandingly by playing with rhetorical devices, tone, diction, and sentence structure to generate the feeling in the audience the way he desires. In result, Orwell brilliantly uses the incident of killing an elephant to describe the negative effects of imperialism.

British Airways Management of Company Finance

Ahoussou kouadio Jean Christian Student number: 2522706 Management of company finance Analysis of the financial structure of British Airways Name of professor: Tony Kilmister British airways is one of the most valuable company in the world that is why I choose her. With the aim to evaluate the proportion of debt in British airways, we will study his financial gearing: income gearing and capital gearing. In order to calculate the company’s capital gearing according to the book value, we need especially the value of the long-term and short-term borrowings and the value of shareholders’ funds. But, there is several different formulas which arises some issues: the fact that the book value is lower than the market value (the first formula) and provisions can be considered either as liabilities or assets (the second formula), depending on firm. Then I will calculate the Weighted Average Cost of Capital. In 2004, the way of doing the balance sheets changed that’s why there are some differences between two reports. Part ——————————————————————————————1 Measure of the gearing and income ratio Part —————————————————————————– ————-2 Measure of the debt and equity based upon the market value Part ——————————————————————————————3 Estimation of the WACC. I) Measure of gearing and income ratios We will take those expressions: 1. Debt to equity ratio=Long term Liabilities/Shareholders’funds 2. Debt to debt plus equity ratio=LTL/(LTL+ Shareholders’funds) 3. Long Term Borrowings/Shareholders’ funds a) Gearing Ratio Capital Gearing = LTL / Shareholders' Funds    |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |259. 75% |437. 6% |590. 7% | To set an upper rati o; we can incorporate the LTL at the shareholder value. Capital Gearing = LTL / (LTL + Shareholders' Funds) |   |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |72. 2% |81. 4% |85. 5% | The provision are incorporates in those 2 formulas. We can consider that the provision can be take as liabilities (highly certain) or as equity (ultra-prudence). Capital Gearing = Long Term Borrowing (LTL – provisions) / Shareholders' Funds |   |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |193. 5% |341. 4 % |475,40% | Net Debt: Net debt = (Finance debt – cash and liquid resources)/ Equity For British Airways, Net debt = (loans, finance leases and hire purchase arrangements + Convertible Capital Bonds, net of other current interest bearing deposits and cash and cash equivalents – overdrafts) British Airways' definition from the annual report 2006) |? million |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |1641 |2922 |4158 | The figures of long term liabilities are higher than the net debt that explain the fact that the ratios are different; The company health seem less vital, because of the cash and those equivalent, and deposits. Overdrafts are not representing a big amount, we include them. Since 2004 a policy of high liquidity is developed in order to reduce the debt, they tried to repay the debt earlier. The debt are reduced by the conversion of the 112 millions of convertible bonds. â€Å"The ? 320 million 9 3/4 per cent Convertible Capital Bonds 2005 issued in 1989 matured on June 15, 2005. On that date 47,979,486 ordinary shares were issued in exchange for 112,317,274 Convertible Capital Bonds on the basis of one ordinary share for every 2. 34 Bonds held† (British Airways Report 2006). The capital gearing of the company is around 65% in almost all gearing indicators and more in som of them, as a conclusion we can say that the financial statement of the company is risky and more the company is weak due to the payment on the debt. We can also highlight the fact that British Airways is finance by debt. Its has a important amount of lease and purchase arrangement, which exceeds the bank loans. b) Income Gearing This ratios show us the security of creditor’s fund and the debt exposure. While using Income Ration we highlight the relation of the company’s income and its interest commitments. Income Ratio = Interest payable / Profit Before Interest and Tax |% |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Income Gearing |0,17 |0,26 |0,87 | Interest are taking a lower place in the profit (strategy reduction of debt). In fact, we use the Interest cover to see if the company can meet its interest. Interest cover = Profit before interest and tax / Interest charges |Times |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Interest Cover |5,79 |3,80 |1,15 | The company can afford her interest. 1) Because of the decrease of the amount of debt, 2) The profit before tax and interest increased by 269%, the risk is less important. We can also use another formula, which gives a better image of the finance. It based on the fact that cash has not been received. As a conclusion we can says that: :British Airways reduced its long term debt by 28. 5%, and keep their interest payment low and increase the PBIT strongly. From the shareholder point of view, the company takes high risks so they have a good return on investment although reduction of the debt of the company makes the rate of return lower and lower. II) Measure of the debt and equity based on the market value a) Value of Equity Share Price*:Number of Shares*: 2004: ? 2,181 083 845 000 2005: ? ,941 082 903 000 2006: ? 2,791 130 882 000 *I took those which were in the report. *The difference in the number of shares between 2005 and 2006 is the conversion of the 112 millions of Convertible Bonds into 47,979,486 shares. The value of equity is now: |? |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Value of Equity |3 155 160 780 |2 100 831 820 |2 362 782 100 | b)Rating: Value of Debt [pic ] The rating shows that the company take risks for financing because she invest in high return share in the junk bond or high yield market those are really unstable. This means that the company is highly financing by debt, investor need an important rate of return regards to the risk of non payment. In spite of that, British Airways’s main source of external funding is less sensitive to credit rating than the unsecured bond. The impact of the credit ration is not important for some parts of the debt. We will use the faire value of the debt to calculate the market value of debt. Because of the â€Å"†fair values of the Euro-Sterling notes and Euro-Sterling Bond 2016 are based on the quoted market values at March 31, 2006. The fair values of floating rate borrowings are deemed to be equal to their carrying values. † British Airways Report Example in March, 31st 2006: [pic] Market value of the debt is: |? million |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Market Value of Debt |4 130 |4 682 |5 954 | |Book Value of Debt |4 081 |4 492 |5 716 | The problem is: Those market values are blending the current liabilities. In the purpose to respect the ratios made before, I will deduct with percentage the current liabilities. The new market value of debt is: |? million |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Market Value of Debt |3645 |4216 |5244 | |Book Value of Debt |3 602 |4 045 |5 034 | There is the a market where Debt are trade daily, that explain the difference between years. ) Measure of gearing based on market values We use here the gearing ratio to compare the book value and the market value of the company: Capital Gearing = LTL / Shareholders' Funds |% |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |115,5 |200,7 |221,9 | We can make a second ratio in order to set an upper limit: Capital Gearing = LTL / (LTL + Shareholders' Funds) % |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Capital Gearing |53,6 |66,7 |68,9 | Figures are lower than the one we made with the book value. The equity are valued in the book value at 25p whereas in the market value at an average price of the three years at 230p This divergence makes the ratios lower, thus with the b ook values the company seems to be less indebted and also less risky to investors. III) Estimation of the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) a) Cost of Equity To estimate the cost of equity, we can use two ways: 1) the dividend valuation model 2) the Capital Asset Price Model (CAPM). In this case, we can not use the dividend valuation model because the company did not distribute dividends since 2001, so the cost of equity will be 0 that would lead to irrelevant results. British Airways has not distributed dividends because: -They wants to strengthen the balance sheet by making new investment, then it invests into the company Quantas and also into the 5th Terminal in Heathrow. British Airways is the 13th highest performing company out of the 93 FTSE 100 companies remaining for the performance period April,1st 2003 to March, 31st 2006. The board of director indicated that the payment of dividends will be resumed at an appropriate time. To calculate the cost of equity, the CAPM is the only model available: Ke = Rf + ? (Rm – Rf) Rf ( the risk-free return; Rm ( the market risk; ? ( quantitative measure of the volatility of a given stock, mutual fund, or portfolio, relative to the overall market. A beta above 1 is more volatile than the overall market, while a beta below 1 is less volatile. For British Airways, the Beta is, for the three years, 0,91. The risk-free return can be found in the website of the Bank of England for each years and the market risk is the caps of the FTSE 100 of year N less years N-1 divided by the caps year N-1: (Caps N – caps N-1) / caps N-1 The risk-free return rate is: 2004: 4,75% 2005: 5,1% 2006: 4,2% The market risk is: |   |31. 03. 2006 |31. 03. 2005 |31. 03. 004 | |Caps FTSE 100 |5964,6 |4894,4 |4385,7 | |year N – year N-1 |1070,2 |508,7 |772,4 | |Market Risk (%) |21,87 |11,60 |21,38 | The Cost of Equity using the CAPM is: |% |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Cost of Equity |20,1 |10,9 |19,7 | ) Cost of debt In order to obtain the cost of debt, the best ratio is to divide the interest payable by the debt: |% |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Cost Of Debt |2,62 |3,01 |3,50 | They leads to the same conclusion decrease in Debt and interest. We can add that no debt has been taken in 2006. All the purchase have been made by internal cash flow. c) The WACC The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is used to measure the cost of capital. The formula is: Ko = Ke (Ve/Vo) + Kd (Vd/Vo) Where: Ke (the cost of equity Ve (the value of equity Kd (the cost of debt Vd (the value of debt Vo (the total value of the firm: |? million |2006 |2005 |2004 | |Vo |7 236 |6 593 |8 079 | The WACC is: |% |2006 |2005 |2004 | |WACC |10,08 |5,41 |8,04 | The amount of Debt decreased but the WACC stay in the average, that because of the high level of the cost of equity. 2005 is discernible by a share price lower than the two other years. This leads to a lower shareholders' funds and also an higher influence of the debt’s drop, therefore the lower WACC. However, the CAPM have some limitations. – He is based on several assumptions: – The investors are rational and risk-adverse who set a level of risk. – The investors have the same single-period planning horizon. – The investors have homogeneous expectations on the future yield. The investors can borrow and lend unlimited amounts at a risk-free rate. – There is neither taxes nor cost of transactions – The investors have all an efficient portfolio which maximize the yield, for a level of risk given. Whole of efficient portfolio form a curve called the efficiency frontier†¦ To conclude, from the point of view of market value, we can say that British airways succeeded to face its commitments in term of debt and equity. Indeed, they took advantage of an increase in share price. The repayment of share allowing to reduce the gearing in debt capital.

Australian Identity Essay - 1565 Words

Australian Identity Mateship. Adventurous. Loyal. Free. Proud. These are the typical words Australians use to describe themselves, to identify themselves as different from the rest of the world. But who is an Australian? Someone that was born in Australia? Only people we choose to call Australian? People with great achievements that we choose to take credit for? Only people that love sport and vegemite? Or maybe only people with ‘Aussie’ accents? The Australian population is a proud one indeed, proud of their nation, their achievements and their own independent way of life, but sometimes us Aussies, forget about the rest of the world and all those other people that make us, who we are. The poem, Australia by Ania Walwicz, is told†¦show more content†¦In this particular poem we understand through the persona’s tone, that they do not like Australia or the people and are therefore making a judgement of, and being of a negative opinion towards, the nation. The text begins with â€Å"You big ugly.† This is instantly causing proud Australians to take offence towards the poem, we know it is about Australia because of the title. The poem continues with lines such as â€Å"you bore me. Freckle silly children†¦ you nothing much†¦ you’re ugly†¦ you copy†¦you big awful†¦Ã¢â‚¬  all against Australia. The poems by Komninos and Langley also use tone to relay the persona’s attitude. In Komninos’ poem, the persona, who happens to be the poet, is fed up of being treated differently by Australians because of his heritage and is using the poem to â€Å"assert† himself â€Å"as an Australian†¦ as an artist.† In Langley’s poem, the Australian persona relays a positive view of Australia, representing Australians as compassionate, educated and respectful whilst relaying an unfavourable opinion of immigrants, portraying them as self-absorbed and â€Å"god-like† in an unnatural, unfitting sense. Tone is helped to represent Australian identity by the use of a persona and the use of language in the text. Having a persona in a poem, allows the writer to relay what they want to say through a characters actions or thoughts. The use of a persona is quite strong in each of the three texts. In Australia the persona,Show MoreRelatedAustralian National Identity1927 Words   |  8 Pagesnature of national identity in Australia. How has/have national identify/ies been portrayed and maintained and which groups have been excluded? The nature of Australian’s national identity has been an ongoing debate for many years. It involves how Australians see themselves, and how other countries view Australia as a whole. Throughout the country’s history, the national identity has not remained constant, and currently it is a debate to what Australian’s true national identity is. As the originalRead MoreAustralia And The Australian Identity2502 Words   |  11 PagesThere are many diverse interpretations of the words â€Å"Australian Identity†. The national anthem, as evidenced in Stand Up, is a primarily white interpretation of Australia and the Australian identity, with many of the lines ignoring the Indigenous people of Australia (Perkins et al, 2012). Another form of the â€Å"Australian Identity† was one presented by Prime Minister Paul Keating in his Redfern Address in 1992. He proclaimed that â€Å"Australia is a first-rate social democracy†¦truly the land of the fairRead MoreThe Characteristics Of Australian Aboriginal Identity1691 Words   |  7 PagesIt is not easy to find what make people’s identity. The causes are sometimes visible and are sometimes invisible. People often say features of appearance can be identity such as skin colour, hair colour, eyes, and body frame. 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Many great Australian poets show the culture that Australia has through the strong imagery and emotive language portrayed in their poetry. Judith write is a famous Australian poet who wrote many poems that portrayed Australias Cultural Identity. Her poems ‘The Wonga Vine, Jet Flight Over Derby, A Country Town and Two Dreamtimes strongly reflect the landscape, environment , history, beliefs andRead MoreThe Question Of The Australian Identity Essay2337 Words   |  10 PagesThe question of the Australian identity is a subject of a broad range of debates in the contemporary society. The subject is made complex by the existence of various myths, models, and stereotypes concerning the actual identity of the Australians. Specifically, it has been negatively caricatured using racial, hostile, and homophobic connotations in arts, politics, and reality programs among other aspects. 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The Skimming Of A Business Plan - 728 Words

The Skimming Three The Skimming Three The Skimming Three The Skimming Three simply requires flipping through the pages of the plan and looking at a few sections. These three of the Top Ten Fatal Flaws also land plans in the â€Å"reject† pile. 5. Poorly Written Plan 5. Poorly Written Plan This ranks up there with sloppy. When you submit a plan, it does not need to be textbook perfect English. Investors understand that business plans are not written by English professors. The sort of misspellings that should be caught in a spell check are unforgivable. It shows a tremendous lack of effort if a business plan isn’t even spell checked. Is the plan clearly written? When an investor reads a plan, is it clear enough to make sense quickly? Investors don’t want to de-code a business plan. They just want to read it. Poor grammar, poor word choice, wrong words, and too many proofreading errors make a business plan too much of a chore to get through. It gets the plan tossed into the â€Å"reject† pile quickly. 6. Too Much Detail 6. Too Much Detail This is a common sin of technology, medical and some product start-ups. If you have too much technical information or too much supporting material in the body of your plan, it bogs down the reader. Talk about what the Technology DOES for the user first, before going into details. Then go deeper into the technology or product only enough to let someone know what you’re doing, what problem you’re solving, and that your people can deliver. LeaveShow MoreRelatedCoca Cola Comprehensive Marketing Plan1134 Words   |  5 PagesRunning head: COCA-COLA COMPREHENSIVE MARKETING PLAN 1 COCA-COLA COMPREHENSIVE MARKETING PLAN 5 Coca-Cola Comprehensive Marketing Plan Hieu Le Columbia Southern University Coca-Cola Comprehensive Marketing Plan Product pricing is the primary justification for value from a customer?s perspective (Perreault, Cannon McCarthy, 2015). Majority times consumers lack a knowledge of the total cost of product that launching into the market. However, those customers may understandRead More Product Pricing Essay1501 Words   |  7 Pagesexpanded their sales niche to the toy department putting many specialty toy stores near or completely out of business. This paper will discuss how Wal-Mart priced their line of toys, why Wal-Mart used toys as â€Å"loss leaders† to attract customers, and two alternate methods of pricing marketers can use based on demand and reputation. Toy Pricing Pricing is an important aspect of every business. Chief Financial Officer’s (CFO) use pricing to create financial projections, establish a break-even point,Read MoreCredit Cards And Bank Accounts1430 Words   |  6 Pagesfraud and should be recognized as the most important advice to adhere to (Beesley, 2013, para. 5).Professionals recommend â€Å"separating your personal banking and credit cards from your business accounts – this will ensure fraudsters don’t get their hands on all your money. This will also make it easier to track your business expenses and report deductions on your tax return† (Beesley, 2013, para. 5). It is also recommended that credit cards are not shared with employees within the company. There are manyRead MoreA Brief Note On Fraud And Small Businesses1565 Words   |  7 Pageswould never occur within a company would be reckless. There are three key objectives when operating a business, whether large or small. These objectives inclu de prevention, detection, and response, and should be implemented into every companies operations. When exploring preventative techniques, there a seven recommendations made by professionals to reduce the most often seen attacks of small business fraud and cybercrime. Most importantly a company should protect their assets, specifically their creditRead MoreA Business Fraud And Cybercrime1511 Words   |  7 Pageswould never occur within a company would be reckless. There are three key objectives when operating a business, whether large or small. These objectives include prevention, detection, and response, and should be implemented into every company’s operations. When exploring preventative techniques, there are seven recommendations made by professionals to reduce the most often seen attacks of small business fraud and cybercrime. 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Early marketing strategy concepts were: Borden’s â€Å"marketing mix† In his classic Harvard Business Review (HBR) article of the marketing mix, Borden (1964) credits James Culliton in 1948 with describing the marketing executive as a decider and a mixer of ingredients. This led Borden, in the early 1950s, to the insight that what this mixer

Use of Emotional Intelligence to Communicate Effectively...

Communication is vital to many everyday activities, such as conversing with a loved one, discussing a situation with a co-worker, or giving a speech. Speakers do not always communicate as successfully as they believe they do, in fact, speakers have been found to systematically overestimate their communication effectiveness. Most of the time the senders and receivers communicate successfully, but there are times when the lines of communication breakdown. In a work environment the lines of communication must remain intact because if there are any misunderstandings these misunderstandings could result in a life or death situation. Using your emotional intelligence when communicating with co-workers will help break down the barriers in the†¦show more content†¦Your awareness of what you are feeling you can help you control your emotions. â€Å"Just because you have emotions does not mean you have to act upon them† (Hybels Weaver, 2007, p.159). You may need to remov e yourself from the situation for a while so you can regain your composure. Managing your emotions does not mean that you should not show emotions, but you should be able to control your emotions and not let your emotions control you (Hybels Weaver, 2007). Being able to manage your emotions will help you especially if you tend to fly off the handle when you hear something that upsets you. Things could be said that are unintentional and that could put up communication barriers between two people. Understanding and improving your EI also means you should motivate yourself by setting goals, whether at work or at home, and then take the necessary steps to achieve those goals. â€Å"Self-motivation requires resisting impulses† (Hybels Weaver, 2007, p. 157). The ability to resist impulses will help you concentrate on the steps to achieve your goal. Once the goal is achieved the effects on your motivation are positive. 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Shape Memory Alloys for Smart Materials- MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theShape Memory Alloysfor Smart Materials. Answer: Definition of Smart Materials (shape memory alloys) Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are types of smart materials. By definition, smart materials are materials whose properties can react to the changes within their environment. This implies that an external condition, such as pressure, temperature, electricity or light, can change one of the properties of these materials (Roy, 2016). However, the change is reversible. SMA is an alloy that can be folded, twisted or bent into a shape (i.e. get deformed) and return to or regain its original shape when heated above a certain temperature level (Ivanic, Gojic and Kozuh, 2014), as shown in Figure 1 below (GCSEScience.com, 2015). In other words, SMA can remember its original shape. Figure 1: Changes of an SMA Characteristics of Smart Materials (SMAs) Some characteristics of SMAs are as follows: their properties change with changing conditions such as temperature, pressure, light or electricity; change memory effect; they are highly super elastic; they are lightweight; they have high wear and tear resistance; they have high ductile and fatigue properties; their yield strength is relatively low than that of steel but higher than that of aluminium or steel; electrical resistance that changes with temperature; high resistance to vibration; resistance to acoustic damping. Composition of Smart Materials The composition of SMAs depend on the specific type of metals that make up the alloy. The most common SMAs is Nitinol, which comprises of nickel and titanium. Other compositions of SMAs include: copper-aluminium-nickel (Cu-Al-Ni), silver cadmium (Ag-Cd), Au-Cd, Cu-Sn, copper zinc (Cu-Zn), In-Ti, nickel and aluminium (Ni-Al), Mn-Cu, Fe-Pt, among others. These metals are the ones that determine the properties of a particular SMA. Classifications of Smart Materials There are two main categories of SMAs: one way SMA and two way SMA. One way SMAs are those that when they are in their cold state i.e. below temperature at the start of Martensite-to-Austenite transformation (As), they can be stretched or bent while still holding their shape until when they are heated to temperatures exceeding the transition temperature. When they get heated, their shape changes to the original shape. On cooling, they retain their hot temperature shape until they deform again. Therefore the macroscopic shape of these SMAs does not change when they are cooled from the high temperatures. Two way SMA are those that remember two shapes. One of these shapes is when the SMA is at high temperature and the other one is when it is at low temperature. Two way SMAs exhibit shape memory effect when they are being cooled and heated. They can also be manipulated so as to leave some properties they acquire when they get deformed at low temperature during the high temperature phase. But when they get heated beyond a certain temperature level, two way SMAs lose the two way memory effect. When this happens, it is referred to as amnesia. History of Smart Materials According to Shuai, Yen-Yu and Xi (2009), the history of SMAs goes back to 1930s. It was in 1932 when Au-Cd alloys pseudoelastic behavior was discovered by Olander. Greninger and Mooradian then made observations on how martensitic phase formed and disappeared when temperature of Cu-Zn alloy was decreased and increased. A decade later, there was extensive discussion about the fundamental concept of memory effect that was governed by martensite phases thermoelastic behavior. During early 1960s, shape memory effect was discovered in equiatomic nickel and titanium alloy by people working at the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory. This was a major breakthrough in discovery of shape memory materials. The nickel and titanium alloy was given the name Nitinol to mean Nickel-Titanium Naval Ordnance Laboratory. After that, there followed numerous investigations towards understanding the basic behavior of Nitinol and its mechanics. Nitinol, also referred to as NiTi, started being used widely due to its shape memory effect and superelasticity. These two are very new properties in comparison with traditional metal alloys. Production Methods to Produce Smart Materials There are several production methods used to produce SMAs. These include: vacuum melting, induction melting, vacuum arc melting, plasma arc melting, hot and cold working (which comprises of rolling, forging and wire drawing), electron beam melting, rapid solidification methods such as continuous casting and melt spinning (Ivanic, Gojic and Kozuh, 2014). In general, the key processes of manufacturing SMAs are: casting process, heat treatment process, forming process, and machining process (Markopoulos, Pressas and Manolakos, 2016). After manufacturing, the SMAs go through fabrication where they are welded, soldered, joined, machined and coated/plated. Application of Smart Materials in Modern Day Machinery SMAs have a wide range of applications including industrial (automotive, spacecraft and aircraft, and robotics), civil structures (piping and telecommunication), medicine (optometry, dentistry and essential tremor), crafts and engines. Limitations on use of smart materials There are also several factors that limit use of SMAs. Some of these are: response symmetry, response time, functional fatigue, structural fatigue, unintended actuation, high cost, low energy efficiency and limited availability. Future of Smart Materials The future of SMAs is very promising because these materials are expected to be improved further so as to make them better and increase their applications (Weber, 2010). SMAs have great potential of transforming several industries including manufacturing, robotics, healthcare, etc. These materials are expected to find more applications in production of different products used in industries, homes and offices. It is also expected that researchers of these materials will continue developing strategies of overcoming the limitations of SMAs. Additionally, new types of SMAs are expected to be discovered in the near future (Brown, 2015). For instance, there are several ongoing research and development projects exploring the uses of SMAs. Some of these include use of SMAs to make the following products: amplitie, puddlejumper coat, cooling jacket, adaptable airplane wings, automatic rolling shirt sleeves, opaque glass, disappearing ink, etc. (Cooper, 2013). All these products are made by ap plying the fact that SMAs are able to learn and change their properties because of surrounding conditions. If properly used, SMAs can improve the performance of almost all present products including robots, automobiles, airplanes, electrical appliances, etc. (Rossiter, 2017). Therefore as the global population continues to increase and natural resources become scarcer, SMAs are expected to play a major role in coping up with scarcity of resources (Busscher, 2015). In general, SMAs are anticipated to improve the future and those who want to build the future must understand them. Works Cited Brown, J. (2015). Shape Memory alloys Continue to Improve the Future. Retrieved May 8, 2017, from https://www.appliancedesign.com/articles/94423-shape-memory-alloys-continue-to-improve-the-future Busscher, P. (2015). Smart materials: why the future face of manufacturing matters to investors. Retrieved May 9, 2017, from https://www.cityam.com/209559/smart-materials-why-future-face-manufacturing-matters-investors Cooper, B.B. (2013). If you want to build the future, you need to understand smart materials. Retrieved May 8, 2017, from https://www.attendly.com/if-you-want-to-build-the-future-you-need-to-understand-smart-materials/ GCSEScience.com. (2015). Extraction of Metals. Retrieved May 8, 2017, fromhttps://www.gcsescience.com/ex38.htm Ivanic, K., Gojic, M. and Kozuh, S. (2014). Shape Memory alloys (part II: Classification, Production and application). Journal of Chemists and Chemical Engineers, Vol. 63, No. 9. Markopoulos, A.P., Pressas, I. and Manolakos, D. (2016). Materials Forming and MachiningResearch and Development, pp. 155-180. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. Rossiter, J. (2017). Robotics, Smart Materials, and their Future Impact for Humans. Retrieved May 9, 2017, from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604097/robotics-smart-materials-and-their-future-impact-for-humans/ Roy, B.N. (2016). Future of Shape Memory alloy and Its Utilization. International Journal ofCurrent Research, Vol. 8, Issue 5, pp. 31646-31651. Shuai, S., Yen.Yu, L. and Xi, L. (2009). Fundamental Characteristics of Shape Memory Alloys. Retrieved May 8, 2017, from https://smagroup.blogspot.co.ke/2009/02/fundamental-characteristics-of-shape.html Weber, A. (2010). Smart Materials Have a Bright Future. Retrieved May 9, 2017, from https://www.assemblymag.com/articles/87695-smart-materials-have-a-bright-future